the advocates that did exist were typically military guys.
President Kennedy was closer to his brother than the military leaders.
So the fact that Robert Kennedy was inclined that way probably
made a difference.
What if McNamara hadn't been reluctant to employ the military?
McNamara was the Secretary of Defense and
again somebody that had a lot of influence over Kennedy.
McNamara was slow, he was reluctant to engage the military in the way that
the actual military leaders wanted them engaged.
So it seems like, in this situation, the dispositions of the individuals and
the alliances they had made a very big difference on what happened.
So, when you approach problems with a Model III mindset,
you not only navigate the politics of your own organization.
But it helps you understand the politics of the other organization,
perhaps the organization that you are negotiating with.
So, this led to Kennedy responding to the first of Kruschev's messages,
not the second of Kruschev's messages.
There are tapes of the conversations of the EXCOMM meetings.
Where advisors are trying to,
they're advocating different views of what's going on in the Soviet Union.
And they're trying to understand how can you
reconcile the first message with the second.
And some of them come to believe, well we think Kruschev is in this position.
He has these interests, he has these constraints.
And the best way to get to him is to ignore the second letter,
appeal to the first.
And that kind of reasoning helped Kennedy offer the exchange and
ultimately encourage, persuade Kruschev to pull missiles out of there.
So to recap, Allison's Models of Organizational Politics,
which we're talking about here in governmental situations.
Because we think they're relevant and non-governmental.
Model 1, Rational Analysis.
This model explains an outcome as the optimal response for
the organization as a whole, to a specific set of conditions and objectives.
Very rational, and
this has been the traditional way of thinking about organizations.
Model 2, Organizational process.
This model explains an outcome as the result of systemic pressures and
routinized behavior.
The key to applying this framework is to think of an outcome as being the byproduct
of activities and
imperatives not specifically intended to produce that outcome.
And then Model 3, Bureaucratic politics.
This model explains outcomes as a product of the accumulated preferences and
strategies of people or sub organizations.
Sometimes negotiations are between parts of the organization
making up an organization.
So here's a quick summary.
You could think about the logic of these models being rational, in Model 1 routine,
in Model 2 in bargaining, rational routine or bargaining.
You can think about the locus of them varying as well.
Model 1, the locus is the organization as a whole, Model 2 is more the division or
function.
And then Model 3 is more the individual.
And you could also think about what they manifest.
Model 1 manifests choice, choice of the organization.
Model 2 is more an output, more by-product, and
Model 3 is more an outcome.
All these individual bargains,
negotiations going on bubble up to an outcome for the organization.